Completar Frases
UNIT1/1.3
1
be
every
born
management
management
One
of
the
enduring
questions
in
the
field
of
management
is
whether
it
is
an
art
or
a
science
.
Webster's
College
Dictionary
defines
an
art
as
"
skill
in
conducting
any
human
activity
"
and
science
as
"
any
skill
or
technique
that
reflects
a
precise
application
of
facts
or
a
principle
.
"
Reflected
in
the
differences
in
these
definitions
is
the
use
of
precision
in
science
,
in
that
is
a
particular
,
prescribed
way
in
which
a
manager
should
act
.
Thus
,
management
as
a
science
would
indicate
that
practice
,
managers
use
a
specific
body
of
information
and
facts
to
guide
their
behaviours
,
but
that
management
as
an
art
requires
no
specific
body
of
knowledge
,
only
skill
.
Conversely
,
those
who
believe
that
management
is
an
art
are
likely
to
believe
that
there
is
no
specific
way
to
teach
or
understand
management
,
and
that
is
a
skill
borne
of
personality
and
ability
.
Those
who
believe
in
management
as
an
art
are
likely
to
believe
that
certain
people
are
predisposed
to
be
effective
managers
than
are
others
,
and
that
some
people
cannot
taught
to
be
effective
managers
.
That
is
,
even
with
an
understanding
of
management
research
and
an
education
in
management
,
some
people
will
not
be
capable
of
being
effective
practising
managers
.
2
so
scientist
For
on
on
scientific
toward
more
Practising
managers
who
believe
in
management
as
a
science
are
likely
to
believe
that
there
are
ideal
managerial
practices
for
certain
situations
.
That
is
,
when
faced
with
a
managerial
dilemma
,
the
manager
believes
in
the
scientific
foundation
of
his
or
her
craft
will
expect
that
there
is
a
rational
and
objective
way
to
determine
the
correct
course
of
action
.
This
manager
is
likely
to
follow
general
principles
and
theories
and
also
create
and
test
hypotheses
.
instance
,
if
a
manager
has
a
problem
with
an
employee's
poor
work
performance
,
the
manager
will
look
to
specific
means
of
performance
improvement
,
expecting
that
certain
principles
will
work
in
most
situations
.
He
or
she
may
rely
concepts
learned
in
business
school
or
through
a
company
training
programme
when
determining
a
course
of
action
,
perhaps
paying
attention
to
political
and
social
factors
involved
in
the
situation
.
Many
early
management
researchers
subscribed
to
the
vision
of
managers
as
scientists
.
The
scientific
management
movement
was
the
primary
driver
of
perspective
.
Scientific
management
,
pioneered
by
Frederick
W
.
Taylor
,
Frank
and
Lillian
Gilbreth
,
and
others
,
attempted
to
discover
"
the
one
best
way
"
to
perform
jobs
.
They
used
scientific
processes
to
evaluate
and
organise
work
that
it
became
more
efficient
and
effective
.
Scientific
management's
emphasis
both
reducing
inefficiencies
and
on
understanding
the
psychology
of
workers
changed
manager
and
employee
attitudes
the
practice
of
management
.
3
to
by
over
on
than
more
of
to
in
because
among
Practising
managers
who
believe
in
management
as
an
art
are
unlikely
to
believe
that
scientific
principles
and
theories
will
be
able
to
be
implemented
in
actual
managerial
situations
.
Instead
,
these
managers
are
likely
to
rely
on
the
social
and
political
environment
surrounding
the
managerial
issue
,
using
their
own
knowledge
of
a
situation
,
rather
generic
rules
,
to
determine
a
course
of
action
.
For
example
,
as
a
contrast
the
example
given
previously
,
a
manager
who
has
a
problem
with
an
employee's
poor
work
performance
is
likely
to
rely
on
his
or
her
own
experiences
and
judgement
when
addressing
this
issue
.
Rather
than
having
a
standard
response
to
such
a
problem
,
this
manager
is
likely
to
consider
a
broad
range
of
social
and
political
factors
,
and
is
likely
to
take
different
actions
depending
the
context
of
the
problem
.
Henry
Mintzberg
is
probably
the
most
well
-
known
and
prominent
advocate
of
the
school
of
thought
that
management
is
an
art
.
Mintzberg
is
an
academic
researcher
whose
work
capturing
the
actual
daily
tasks
of
real
managers
was
ground
breaking
research
for
its
time
.
Mintzberg
,
through
his
observation
of
actual
managers
in
their
daily
work
,
determined
that
managers
did
not
sit
at
their
desks
,
thinking
,
evaluating
,
and
deciding
all
day
long
,
working
for
long
,
uninterrupted
time
periods
.
Rather
,
Mintzberg
determined
that
mangers
engaged
in
very
fragmented
work
,
with
constant
interruptions
and
rare
opportunities
to
quietly
consider
managerial
issues
.
Thus
,
Mintzberg
revolutionized
thinking
managers
at
the
time
that
his
work
was
published
,
challenging
the
prior
notion
that
managers
behaved
rationally
and
methodically
.
This
was
line
with
the
perspective
of
management
as
an
art
,
because
it
indicated
that
managers
did
not
necessarily
have
routine
behaviours
throughout
their
days
,
but
instead
used
their
own
social
and
political
skills
to
solve
problems
that
arose
throughout
the
course
of
work
.
Another
scholar
that
promoted
the
notion
of
management
as
an
art
was
David
E
.
Lilienthal
,
who
in
1967
had
his
series
of
lectures
titled
Management
:
A
Humanist
Art
published
.
In
this
set
of
published
lectures
,
Lilienthal
argues
that
management
requires
than
a
mastery
of
techniques
and
skills
;
instead
,
it
also
requires
that
managers
understand
individuals
and
their
motivations
and
help
them
achieve
their
goals
.
Lilienthal
believed
that
effective
managerial
behaviour
meant
combining
management
and
leadership
into
practice
,
by
not
only
getting
work
done
but
understanding
the
meaning
behind
the
work
.
Thus
,
he
promoted
the
idea
of
the
manager
as
a
motivator
and
facilitator
of
others
.
This
manager
as
an
artist
was
likely
to
respond
differently
to
each
employee
and
situation
,
rather
than
use
a
prescribed
set
of
responses
dictated
set
of
known
guidelines
.
Another
proponent
of
the
management
as
art
school
of
thought
is
Peter
Drucker
,
famed
management
scholar
who
is
best
known
for
developing
ideas
related
to
total
quality
management
.
Drucker
terms
management
"
a
liberal
art
"
.
He
argues
that
the
discipline
(
i
.
e
.
,
the
science
)
of
management
attempts
to
create
a
paradigm
for
managers
,
in
which
facts
are
established
,
and
exceptions
these
facts
are
ignored
as
anomalies
.
He
is
critical
the
assumptions
that
make
up
the
management
paradigm
,
because
these
assumptions
change
time
as
society
and
the
business
environment
change
.
Thus
,
management
is
more
of
an
art
,
scientific
"
facts
"
do
not
remain
stable
over
time
.
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