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1
Smooth muscle is involuntary and is found in the walls of internal organs, helping move substances through the body.
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Alveoli are tiny sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the air and the blood.
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The dermis is the middle layer of the skin that contains blood vessels, nerves, and hair follicles, providing nourishment and sensation.
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The pharynx serves as a passageway for both air (respiratory system) and food (digestive system).
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The muscular system works with the skeletal system to enable movement by contracting muscles, which pull on bones.
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The integumentary system (skin) serves as a barrier against pathogens and helps protect the body from injury and dehydration.
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The axial skeleton is the central core of the body, made up of 80 bones including the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, which support and protect the body’s vital organs.
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The respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide as we breathe.
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The femur is the thigh bone and is the longest and strongest bone in the human body.
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The skeletal system consists of bones, which provide structural support, protect organs, and aid in movement.
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Bones store minerals like calcium and phosphorus, which are essential for maintaining bone strength and other physiological functions.
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Red and white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow, which part of the skeletal system.
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Ball-and-socket joints, such as the shoulder and hip, allow for a wide range of movement in multiple directions.
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Skeletal muscles are under voluntary control, while cardiac and smooth muscles are involuntary.
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The sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of a muscle fiber.
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Voluntary action is facilitated by muscles attached to bones. Involuntary muscles act without conscious awareness. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control whereas cardiac and smooth muscle are involuntary.
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Skin colour is derived from a combination of melanin, carotene and haemoglobin. The amount of melanin in the skin varies in colour from a pale yellow to black. Melanin is located predominantly in the epidermis. Carotene, an orange pigment and a precursor of Vitamin A, is found in the stratum corneum, adipose tissue, dermis and subcutaneous layers. Haemoglobin influences skin colouring through the volume of blood moving through the capillaries in the dermis.
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The sebaceous glands produce the oils necessary to maintain skin and hair. Sweat is produced by apocrine and eccrine glands. Ceruminous glands are modified glands that produce a waxy substance which, when combined with sebaceous glands secretions, forms a sticky barrier that helps protect the external auditory canal from foreign bodies. The mammary glands produce and secrete milk.
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Nails are composed of tightly packed epidermal keratinocytes which grow from the nail bed (nail matrix). The lunula is the visible part of the nail (half-moon). It appears white because the vascular tissue underneath is not visible.
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The pharynx can be divided into the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are involved in both conduction of air and foods. Liquids and foods are routed into the oesophagus by the epiglottis.
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Cellular respiration is the process by which a cell obtains oxygen, distributes it to the mitochondria and uses it to break down sugar (such as glucose) to produce energy for the cell. The by-products of cellular respiration are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
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Haemopoiesis (or haematopoiesis) refers to making all of cellular components of blood. Haemolysis refers to the rupturing (lysis) of RBC; Haematuria refers to blood in the urine; haemostasis refers to the process by which we cause bleeding to stop.
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Sarcoma refers to a malignant tumour of connective or other non-epithelial tissue (bones, muscles, tendons, cartilage, nerves, fat and blood vessels).
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Troponin causes tropomyosin (which covers the binding site of actin) to be shifted away.
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A muscle cell is a bundle of myofibrils. Myofibrils contain many sarcomeres joined end to end. Within sarcomeres are found thick and thin myofilaments.
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Smooth muscle is not-striated, and it is involuntary and has one nucleus.
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Ligament is the ‘ligature’ that join articulating bones. A tendon (or an aponeurosis) attaches a muscle to a bone.
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Actin is the major component of a thin filament. Tropomyosin covers the binding site, while troponin provides the mechanisms for removing tropomyosin from the binding site.
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Skeletal muscle is voluntary so is innervated by the somatic nervous system, not the autonomic system.
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Tendons (thin rope-like structures) attach muscle to bone.
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ACh crosses the synaptic cleft to transmit a neural impulse to the muscle sarcolemma.
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A & C are both proteins in thin myofilaments. ACh is a neurotransmitter.
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Organelles are small membrane-bound structures found in the cytoplasm of the cell that have a specific function. Some organelles are double-membrane structures (such as mitochondria) whereas other organelles are enclosed in a single membrane (for example, lysosomes).
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There are four main tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous. Epithelial tissue covers and lines much of the body. Connective is the most common tissue, holding things together it provides structure and support. It can be loosely arranged (such as adipose tissue, collagen) or more densely packed such as tendons and ligaments. Blood and lymph are types of connective tissue. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Nervous tissue facilitates transmission and coordination of electrical impulses throughout the body in response to various stimuli.
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Besides removing heat and some water from the body, sweat also allows for the loss of a small quantity of ions and several organic compounds such as urea and lactic acid.
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The subcutaneous layer of skin consists of loose connective (areolar) and fat (adipose) tissues. The collagenous and elastic fibres of this layer are continuous with those of the dermis and run parallel to the surface of the skin, extending in all directions. As a result of this layout, no definitive boundary exists between the dermis and subcutaneous layers.
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These receptors, called Merkel cells, are attached to keratinocytes in the stratum basale of hairless skin and are involved in touch sensation. Merkel cells make contact with the flattened end of the sensory neurons and initiate the sensation of touch.
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Langerhans cells are an important population of cells which arise in bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis where they interact with T-helper cells of the immune system.
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Negative feedback mechanisms ensure that core and surface body temperature remain relatively constant. The skin plays a significant role in the homeostatic regulations of the body temperature. Despite large fluctuations in the environmental temperature, the negative feedback loop maintains body temperature within acceptable limits.
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I. Long bone: Longer than are wide. Consists of primarily of compact bone tissue which is dense with few spaces. Example: tibia, fibula, humerus, radius and ulna.
II. Short none: Equal in length and width. They have a thin outer surface of compact bone. Example: The carpals (in hands) and tarsals (in feet).
III. Flat bone: Thin and composed of two plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone. Flat bone protects the internal organs and provides areas for muscle attachment. Example: sternum, ribs and scapulae.
IV. Irregular bones: have complex shapes. The amount of compact and spongy bone varies. Example: vertebrae and some facial bones.
V. Sesamoid bone: generally embedded in tendons where considerable pressure develops. Example: patella
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