17th Century

Charles II’s pro-French and pro-Catholic policies at home and abroad were embodied in the Clarendon Code.

Charles II’s major attempts to introduce religious toleration in 1672 and 1673 were highly successful.

By the end of Charles II’s reign, Shaftesbury created the first political party in England, “Tory”, which produced a mass of propaganda, organized petitions and demonstrations and coordinated campaigns.

James II came to the throne thanks to the support not only of the Tories but also of the Whigs as both had protected his rightful claims to the English crown.

To win over the support of the Dissenters in his cause towards toleration for Catholics, James II issued, in 1687, a Declaration of Indulgence giving them full religious freedom.

The seven bishops who refused to read to their flocks James II’s Declaration of Indulgence were tried for sedition and found guilty.

In 1688, in face of an imminent Catholic succession to the throne, only the leaders of the Tory-Anglican party resorted to the desperate expedient of inviting William of Orange to come to England to safe the true religion of the nation.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 had important outcomes in the constitutional history of England as it meant the achievement of several aims of the conservative scheme.

In 1688, being unable to oppose William of Orange and unwilling to become his prisoner, King James II fled the country. The event is known as the Glorious Revolution.

The Toleration Act of 1689 did not extend equality of political rights to those outside the Church of England, but a minimum measure of freedom for actual religious worship.

As a consequence of the Glorious Revolution, the keeping up of a standing army became contrary to law; moreover, because the country became involved in a major European war, the new King came to be completely dependent on Parliament for extra taxes, to sustain the military effort.

According to Hobbes, men are continually in competition for honour and dignity, and consequently amongst men there arises on that ground, envy and hatred, and finally war.

Locke believed that men had come together and formed political societies by entrusting sovereigns or civil rulers with power over them. The authority of that civil ruler was absolute, and therefore irrevocable.

While Hobbes was a fervent defender of the divine hereditary right of kings, Locke maintained that civil government is the result of a contract, and is an affair purely of this world, not something established by divine authority.

The doctrine that the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government should be kept separate is characteristic of liberalism; it arose in England in the course of resistance to the Stuarts and is clearly formulated by Locke.